Which?’s Annual Sustainability Report Series 2024: Electric Vehicles

Executive Summary

The United Kingdom has committed to achieving net zero emissions by 2050 and a central part of this goal is the decarbonisation of road transport. Transport is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions in the UK, contributing a substantial share of the country’s overall carbon footprint. While government initiatives have successfully reduced emissions from energy generation, the transition to electric vehicles (EVs) is essential for reducing emissions in personal transport.

The shift to EVs brings both opportunities and significant challenges to consumers, with their current concerns needing to be taken seriously for adoption to grow.

A worrying trend in consumers’ view of electric vehicles

Our research has found that many consumers feel a sense of personal responsibility for reducing their environmental impact and this has increased over the last four years. However, this does not translate to more consumers intending to buy an EV. In fact, only 6% of non-EV drivers stated that they would consider buying an EV as their next vehicle. Additionally, over the past three years there has been almost a doubling in the number of non-EV drivers saying they are unwilling to consider buying an EV (20% in June 2021 to 39% in June 2024). This growing reluctance to purchase an EV is seriously concerning when the market needs to grow rapidly to meet government targets.

Cost is the single most significant barrier stopping drivers from purchasing an EV, with high upfront prices and limited availability of affordable models deterring many (64% of drivers). But EV uptake is also hindered by charging and performance constraints such as range anxiety, with 54% of drivers saying the distance that can be covered in a single charge would stop them from buying one.

Growing competition and government initiatives such as the Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) mandate, are expected to continue to spur greater innovation and affordability in the EV market, though it remains to be seen when this will have an impact on consumer perceptions.

Building a comprehensive EV charging network

An accessible and reliable EV charging infrastructure is a fundamental requirement for encouraging EV ownership. This research found that over half of non-EV drivers cite the lack of public charging points as a deterrent (52%). While urban areas, particularly London, have benefitted from increased investment in EV infrastructure, rural regions still face considerable shortfalls. To address these gaps, the previous government launched the Local Electric Vehicle Infrastructure (LEVI) fund and introduced Public Charge Point Regulations to standardise and improve the reliability of charge points nationwide. But ensuring adequate charging options, especially for the 40% of UK households without off-street parking, remains an ongoing challenge.

Achieving widespread EV adoption

To encourage widespread EV adoption and support the UK’s ambitious climate goals, a consistent and coordinated approach that addresses issues with the charging infrastructure and cost-related barriers will be critical. Greater consumer awareness on the realities of EV ownership, such as the potential to achieve long-term cost savings, environmental benefits and advancements in battery technology, could also help dispel myths and encourage more informed decisions.

In order to support the transition to EVs the government needs to give confidence to businesses and consumers that they will continue to support the transition through consistent policy, and interventions to support the roll out where there are gaps in market provision. Which? believes the government should:

• Provide clear and consistent support for the transition to EVs through initiatives such as the ZEV mandate: Policy uncertainty can undermine consumer confidence and the confidence of businesses that are responsible for delivering the cars and charging infrastructure that consumers need.
• Improve the consumer experience of public charging: Implement a robust monitoring framework to ensure compliance with the Public Charge Point Regulations, including the publication of performance data and enforcement in the case of non-compliance.
• Ensure accessibility of public charge points: Monitor adoption of the voluntary accessibility standard (PAS 1899) and consider mandatory requirements if progress is not sufficient.
• Expand charging infrastructure: Continue to support the availability of charge points through the LEVI and Rapid Chargepoint funds in areas where there is not a strong market case for investment. Establish powers to require the provision of charge points in car parks and service areas and ensure consumers have a choice of charge points and charge point providers in different settings.
• Promote home charging affordability through Time of Use (ToU) tariffs: Enhance consumer awareness of ToU tariffs’ benefits to encourage charging during off-peak hours, supporting cost savings for consumers and grid stability.

Introduction

The UK government has set a legally binding target for the UK to meet net zero by 2050. The UK has made good progress in reducing its carbon emissions by making changes to the way energy is produced and reducing carbon emissions from supply chains. However the next phase of reductions will have a more direct impact on consumers as they are asked to make changes to purchasing decisions and behaviours that have a significant impact on the environment. These changes will include switching from petrol and diesel cars to electric cars and switching from gas and oil heating to electrified heating. Consumers therefore have a pivotal role to play in the UK’s transition towards achieving net zero emissions. For many consumers these changes are both costly and complex decisions. In its first 100 days the new UK government has focused on its ambition to decarbonise the electricity grid, but manifesto pledges to support the roll out of EV charging infrastructure demonstrate awareness of the consumer challenges ahead.

As the UK’s consumer champion, Which? is committed to supporting consumers in this transition to net zero. Our aim is to make it as simple, fair and safe as possible. We therefore work with government and businesses to ensure the consumer voice is heard in the development of policies that have an impact on the environment, with the aim of minimising consumer harm in the transition and making it easier for consumers to make the changes that are required to meet sustainability targets. This advocacy work has a particular focus on sustainable home heating and electric vehicles, whilst also supporting wider developments to reduce emissions in the energy sector and action to tackle green claims that mislead consumers.

Which? also provides consumers with information and advice, covering topics from home heating to the durability of products. All of this content is brought together in our sustainability hub, giving consumers free advice on how to buy and use products more sustainably.

The tracker survey

For the last three years, Which? has been tracking consumers’ attitudes towards sustainability, behaviours and barriers to change through an annual tracker survey. The survey covers some of the most significant consumption behaviours in relation to carbon emissions, including how we heat our homes, the transport methods we use and what we eat (Table 1). These are important consumer behavioural changes that the Climate Change Committee’s Sixth Carbon Budget: The UK’s path to Net Zero report points towards as being crucial in meeting the UK’s net zero targets. These behaviours are a mix of lifestyle choices and the purchase of technology to reduce carbon emissions. 

Table 1: This sustainability tracker focuses on nine desirable consumer behaviours to reduce carbon emissions

This report primarily focuses on the findings of the June 2024 sustainability tracker, a survey of 2,108 UK adults conducted by Yonder on behalf of Which?. It also incorporates insights from earlier Which? sustainability surveys, June 2022 (2,070) and June 2021 (2,084), allowing us to understand how consumer attitudes and behaviours have evolved over time. [1] The data has been weighted to be nationally representative of UK adults. 

Outline of report

Chapter 1 of this report provides insight into consumer attitudes towards climate change, as well as an overview into how many consumers are adopting these nine desirable behaviours and their attitudes towards future adoption. 

Chapter 2 focuses on the behavioural change of switching to an electric vehicle. It begins by setting out the challenge in accelerating EV adoption and then moves on to our research findings from our tracker survey, looking at consumers’ current behaviours, attitudes and concerns about adopting an EV. 

The report ends with Chapter 3 looking at recent developments in the industry and where Which? believes policy interventions are required.

Chapter 1: An overview of consumer behaviours and attitudes

Consumers are concerned about climate change and feel responsible for reducing their impact on the environment

Our sustainability tracker survey in June 2024 found that more than 3 in 4 (76%) UK adults are concerned about climate change (36% very concerned and 40% somewhat concerned). This worry is fairly similar to previous years, albeit with a small upward trend in those very concerned (33% in June 2022). Concern is widespread across various age groups, with the highest level observed among younger adults aged 18 to 34 years old (81%), compared to 35 to 54 year olds who are the least concerned (72%). Older individuals aged 55 and above also show considerable concern, with three quarters (75%) sharing these concerns. 

Despite this nuance across age groups, over four in five UK adults feel responsible for lessening their environmental footprint (81%). This feeling of personal responsibility is at similar levels to last year (82%), but higher than June 2021 (77%) and June 2022 (78%). 

Figure 1: Proportion of UK adults feeling a responsibility to cut their environmental footprint

Current consumer behaviours

All UK adults (100%) report at least one type of behaviour that lowers their impact on the environment. The most common behaviours consumers reported are reducing home energy use (eg having the heating on less often or switching off appliances at the mains), having double or triple glazing in their homes, or reducing and recycling food waste (Table 2). 

Table 2: Current uptake of sustainable behaviours

As shown in Table 2, most consumers are making some lifestyle changes to their everyday behaviours. Whether they are doing these for sustainable reasons or have other motivations, like reducing their energy bills, they will have some impact in lowering their carbon footprint.

Changes that involve a large purchase lag behind, both with lower uptake and greater reluctance amongst consumers to try them in the future. For example, only one in 50 homeowners have a heat pump (2%). Of those who do know what heat pumps are, only one in six say they would definitely consider installing one if needed in the next 12 months (16%). Similarly, only one in 25 drivers have a fully electric vehicle (4%) and only 6% of current non-EV drivers intend to buy an EV as their next vehicle, whilst four in 10 say they would not consider buying one (39%).

Taking both current behaviours and consumer attitudes together, we classify consumers into three groups. More detail regarding this classification can be found in the annex of this report. The groups were;

1. Low Emitters who are already doing many of these desired behaviours or intend to in the near future,
2. Small Adjusters who are on the journey to integrating these sustainable behaviours into their lives and open to more in the future and;
3. High Emitters who have yet to make many significant changes to their behaviours and do not intend to in the future.

One in five adults are Low Emitters (18%), taking significant steps to reduce their environmental impact and more than half the population (52%) are Small Adjusters, taking smaller steps in this direction and are open to further changes in the future. However three in ten (30%) are High Emitters who haven't yet taken any significant steps to curb their environmental impact and do not intend to do so in the future. As shown in Figure 2, this is very similar to last year, demonstrating that consumer behaviours and attitudes have not changed significantly.

Figure 2: Classification of consumers by their sustainable behaviours and attitudes

This lack of movement in relation to environmentally damaging behaviours contrasts with the progress that is needed if the government is to meet its commitment to reach net zero by 2050. The most recent progress report from the Climate Change Committee noted that the government is off track to meet its international commitments for carbon reduction. In the past, significant progress has been made in cutting carbon emissions from energy production, however the focus is now switching to changes that will have a greater impact on consumer choices. The Climate Change Committee’s report identifies the slow uptake of heat pumps and EVs as two areas of particular concern.

Consumers face many challenges adopting these behaviours

Consumers’ behaviours and attitudes in these areas reflect the significant barriers they face when considering more sustainable options. While these barriers vary depending on the type of sustainable behavioural change, there are common themes that cut across them.

Figure 3: Barriers consumers experience preventing them from adopting transport, home energy and food sustainable behaviours

As shown in Figure 3, while cost is often a major barrier to consumers making these sustainable lifestyle changes or large purchases, consumers can also be limited by a lack of choice, a lack of information or face practical constraints. In addition, concerns about the capability of current technology may stop them making changes to the behaviours or simply personal preferences.

Consumer understanding of behaviour changes

In addition to asking consumers' about the barriers that stop them making these sustainable choices, we also asked them which behaviours they thought would lead to the greatest reduction in carbon emissions (regardless of whether they do the activity or not).

Interestingly, the behavioural changes consumers ranked the highest (having the greatest reduction in emissions) tended to be behaviours they are already doing and are behaviours that will actually have a lower impact on carbon emissions compared to others (Table 3). For example, switching to an electric vehicle came sixth in consumers’ ranking, despite this behaviour change contributing to one of the biggest reductions in carbon emissions. 

Table 3: Consumers’ ranking of behaviours in terms of the greatest reduction in carbon emissions

The three behavioural changes that are major purchase decisions - improving home insulation, switching to an electric vehicle and installing a heat pump - all come low down in the ranking meaning that consumers believe they will result in smaller reductions in emissions. These are also behaviours with some of the lowest uptake to date and can cost consumers thousands of pounds. However, they would be expected to have the greatest impact in terms of reducing the average consumers’ emissions. This mistaken consumer understanding demonstrates the need to support consumers making sustainable choices, both through improving their understanding of these products and tackling the barriers they currently face in purchasing them. 

The remainder of this report will explore the purchase decision of switching to an electric vehicle in more detail. More detailed analysis of improving home insulation and installing a heat pump or solar panels can be found in our other report.

Chapter 2: The Road to 2035: Challenges in Accelerating EV Adoption

The transition to EVs represents not just a technological shift but a fundamental element of the UK's strategy to combat climate change and achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2050. In 2023, domestic transport accounted for 29% of all territorial greenhouse gas emissions, a slight increase from 28% in 2022 and 28% in 2019. Cars and taxis contributed a majority towards these emissions. [2] Given that almost all domestic transport emissions originate from carbon dioxide, primarily produced by petrol and diesel vehicles, reducing emissions from this sector is vital for the UK's decarbonisation efforts.

The UK government’s strategy to decarbonise transport involves a dual approach: promoting active travel and public transport to reduce car dependency while supporting the transition to EVs for those who still need a car. Under the previous government, a target was set to phase out the sale of new petrol and diesel cars by 2030, with a Zero Emissions Vehicle (ZEV) Mandate introduced to require car manufacturers to increase the proportion of EVs sold up to that date. However, the target date was pushed back to 2035 in a Prime Ministerial statement in 2023. The new government initially pledged to maintain the 2030 phase-out; however, they may now allow certain types of hybrid vehicles to be sold until 2035, though the specifics of which hybrids would be included remain unclear. Although it will still be possible to purchase second hand petrol and diesel cars after this date, achieving these targets will require a significant shift in consumer car purchasing behaviour and this will mean overcoming substantial barriers that currently hinder consumer uptake of EVs.

The rest of this chapter shows insights from our sustainability tracker surveys, covering current consumer intention to buy an EV and the barriers that are holding consumers back.

Intention to buy has fallen over the last three years

EV ownership has steadily increased over the last two years. In June 2022 3% of UK adults reported having an EV or plug-in hybrid. This has increased to 6% this year. 

However, over the same time period, there has been a steady increase in drivers’ reluctance to purchase electric vehicles (Figure 4). In 2021, one in ten (11%) non-EV drivers intended to buy an electric vehicle as their next vehicle. This has nearly halved to 6% in 2024. Additionally, in 2021 almost two thirds (64%) of non-EV drivers stated that they would consider buying an EV in the future, compared to around four in ten (43%) in 2024. This results in almost a doubling in drivers who are unwilling to consider buying an EV over the past three years (20% to 39%). A growing reluctance to purchase an EV is seriously concerning when the market needs to grow rapidly to meet government targets. This trend will need to change to ensure that sufficient numbers of consumers are adopting EVs prior to the planned phase out of new petrol and diesel vehicles. 

Figure 4: Non-EV drivers views towards electric vehicles

Younger consumers remain more open to EVs

Intention to buy an electric vehicle decreases with age (Figure 5). One in seven (14%) of 18 to 24 year olds intend to buy an electric vehicle as their next vehicle, making them seven times more likely than over 65 year olds (2%).

Figure 5: Those intending to buy an EV as their next vehicle by age

Higher income households are more open to electric vehicles

 Willingness to consider buying an electric vehicle increases with household income; just a third of consumers in households with incomes up to £21,000 either intend to buy electric vehicles or say they would consider (33%), compared to 65% of those in households over £48,000 (Figure 6). This is unsurprising considering electric vehicle prices remain high and the second hand supply is very limited. 

Figure 6: Drivers who either intend or would consider purchasing an EV by household income

Where consumers live impacts consumer attitudes

Consumers living in urban areas show more interest in buying electric vehicles than rural consumers. In 2024, half of urban consumers intend to, or will consider, buying electric vehicles as their next vehicle (52%) compared to around four in ten of rural consumers (43%). 

Interest in the purchase of an electric vehicle also varies by region. Areas such as Northern Ireland (62%), London (60%) and the North West (57%) have a higher proportion of consumers who either intend or would consider purchasing an EV, whilst Eastern England (39%) has the lowest (Figure 7). 

In London average incomes are a lot higher and it has by far the highest levels of public charging in the UK, likely contributing to the higher levels of openness.

It is not clear what is driving higher interest in Northern Ireland or the North West. Cheaper unit prices for electricity in Northern Ireland may explain the higher interest there.

Figure 7: Drivers who intend or will consider purchasing an EV by region

These differences in attitudes by age, income and region demonstrates where progress on EV adoption is most likely to come from. However, the industry and government must consider how adoption can improve amongst all groups of consumers. In the next section we look at the barriers consumers say would prevent them installing an EV, including how barriers differ by the place consumers live.

Cost and practicality are the biggest barriers to consumers buying an EV

Drivers without an electric vehicle were asked what would prevent them from purchasing an electric vehicle in the future. The top five barriers all relate to concerns surrounding the cost and practicality of electric vehicles (Figure 8). 

Figure 8: Top barriers to drivers buying an electric vehicle as their next vehicle

In addition, there were a number of other barriers that at least a quarter of non-EV drivers also reported. All these barriers can be grouped into four categories; cost, public charging, home charging and performance. These categories are interrelated. For example, performance concerns are linked to charging availability as consumers are naturally worried about how far they will be able to drive in one trip. And home charging is linked to cost concerns as without a home charging point, the amount they spend will be higher. As shown in Figure 9, the sheer number, breadth and interaction between these barriers demonstrates why so many drivers are currently put off EVs. Both the industry and the government face a formidable challenge in convincing more consumers to consider EVs.

Figure 9: Barriers to adopting an EV cited by at least a quarter of drivers

Concerns over charge distance and reliability are on the rise

While most of these perceived barriers have not shifted much over the last few years, some are actually increasing. The proportion of drivers reporting concern about the distance that could be covered in a single charge rose by nearly 10 percentage points, from 46% in 2022 to 54% in 2024, despite more long-distance models becoming available over that period. Similarly, their concern about the current performance and reliability of electric vehicles increased by a similar magnitude (from 28% in 2022 to 37% in 2024). 

While consumers' concerns about electric vehicles (EVs) are valid, some may be exaggerated or reflect a lack of understanding about the technology. Common myths such as the belief that EV batteries are unreliable can arise from various sources, including media reports, social media and anecdotes from friends and family. The rising prevalence of these concerns must be worrying for the industry and government as it can hinder the transition to EVs. 

Older drivers are more concerned about performance and charging 

Older non-EV drivers are consistently more likely to cite barriers stopping them from buying an EV than their younger counterparts (Figure 10). This helps explain why so few of them intend to buy an EV as their next vehicle (Figure 5).

Whilst cost is the biggest concern for over 55 years olds, the fact that they are much more likely to cite performance and charging concerns (e.g. the distance that can be covered in a single charge) than their younger counterparts shows they are much more concerned about the technology. This is also true for heat pumps where older homeowners are much more likely to be unconvinced by heat pump technology.

Figure 10: Barriers to drivers buying an electric vehicle as their next vehicle by age

Rural and urban differences

While most barriers to buying an EV are similar regardless of the type of place someone lives, some differences do occur:

• Urban dwellers are more likely to cite the difficulty of installing a charging point at home (31% vs 22% amongst rural dwellers) - this is likely due to towns and cities having less off-road parking.
• Rural dwellers are more concerned about the distance that can be covered in a single charge (61% vs 51%) - likely due to having to drive longer distances.
• Rural dwellers are more concerned about current performance and reliability of EVs (43% vs 35%) - possibly due to them being more likely to be far from help if their car breaks down.

These figures show the need to tackle the uneven geographic distribution of public charging infrastructure that will currently contribute to these concerns. 

We will now move on to look into where the industry is at in tackling these consumer concerns and where we feel policy intervention is required.

Chapter 3: Future developments and policy recommendations in EV markets 

The UK’s transition to EVs is progressing steadily, with significant advancements in vehicle technology, market expansion and government support. However, as our research shows widespread EV adoption continues to be hindered by a notable reluctance among many drivers, driven by both real challenges and perceived concerns that fuel hesitation. These cover areas such as the high upfront costs of EVs compared to traditional vehicles, limited public and home charging infrastructure and concerns about charging times and range reliability.

We will now look at these four areas of consumer concern in detail - covering both the ongoing development in the industry and policy options to address these challenges. 

The cost of buying an EV

Cost is the main barrier to drivers purchasing an EV with two-thirds of current non-EV drivers saying this will stop them buying one (64%). In recent years the cost of new EVs has gradually decreased, making them more accessible to a broader range of consumers. This reduction in EV prices is driven by factors such as increased competition, particularly from international manufacturers and changes in production efficiencies, including lower battery costs. A recent Autotrader report highlights that the UK's ZEV mandate has been a key driver behind the price drop of new EVs.

Furthermore, the second-hand market for EVs is also evolving rapidly. In recent months, the prices of used EVs have been falling quickly, with some models reaching parity with petrol and diesel equivalents.

Over the coming decade we expect the EV market will continue to grow, with the introduction of more affordable EV models. This should result in more choice for a wider audience and reduce consumers’ concerns about upfront costs.

Public Charging Infrastructure

From our sustainability tracker survey, two of the top five concerns of drivers relate to public charging: the availability of charge points and the time it takes to charge. Older drivers are much more likely to express these concerns.

These concerns will often be in relation to longer journeys but it is important to note that approximately 40% of UK households do not have access to off-street parking and according to our survey 29% of respondents said it would be difficult for them to install a charging point at home. Those consumers are wholly dependent on public charging.

Public charging infrastructure faces several challenges, including uneven geographic distribution. Our recent EV survey reinforces these issues, highlighting that while significant private investment has been made, particularly in urban areas, there is still a notable lack of availability in rural regions. To address these gaps, the government is providing financial support through the Local Electric Vehicle Infrastructure (LEVI) fund and Rapid Charging Funds which were introduced under the previous government. 

In addition, 43% of respondents in our sustainability tracker survey, expressed concerns about how long it takes to recharge a vehicle. A typical rapid charger takes approximately 45 minutes to replenish a vehicle’s battery and while these figures are gradually improving, the reliability and accessibility of public charge points remain significant worries. [3]

The introduction of the Public Charge Point Regulations in 2023 aims to improve standards around reliability and payment options for public charging infrastructure. These regulations require charge point operators to meet specific criteria including ensuring a minimum uptime for charge points and providing clear information about payment options. Effective enforcement of these regulations will be crucial to their success as there are currently no established metrics to evaluate their impact.

Meanwhile accessibility remains a major issue for drivers with disabilities. While a voluntary standard (PAS 1899) was introduced in 2022 to improve the design of charge points, there are no legal requirements for its adoption. The government has indicated it may introduce legal obligations if necessary. 

Variations across the devolved nations further complicate the deployment of EV infrastructure with different funds and regulations applying in different nations. Ensuring a coordinated approach will be key to creating a seamless and user-friendly charging experience.

The consumer experience of charging at home

Currently, the majority of EV owners charge their vehicles at home, benefiting from lower electricity prices compared to petrol and diesel. These benefits can be further enhanced through smart charging, which offers significant advantages, including reduced costs for consumers and enhanced grid stability. Time of Use (ToU) tariffs, which offer cheaper electricity during off-peak hours, are an example of how smart charging can deliver cost savings for consumers. The development of Vehicle to Grid (V2G) technology offers additional benefits by enabling consumers to sell energy from their vehicle to the grid based on their needs and grid demands.

However, while smart charging holds great promise, there are concerns as to whether current consumer protections are sufficient to protect consumers that may be using new technologies and tariffs, and engaging with new providers. 

EV Performance and Reliability

Consumers continue to experience "range anxiety," especially given that most EVs can only cover around 200-250 miles on a single charge. In addition, concerns about vehicle reliability remain a key issue, with some users reporting concerns about the long-term durability of EV batteries and other components. Both of these concerns have risen considerably in the last two years. However, as the EV market continues to grow and manufacturers invest in improving vehicle design and battery technology, reliability is expected to improve. Advances in battery technology and more rigorous testing standards should help to address these concerns, providing consumers with greater confidence in the performance and longevity of EVs over time.

Expanding the availability, reliability and accessibility of charging facilities nationwide will help alleviate range anxiety, giving consumers greater confidence that charging is readily accessible wherever they travel. 

Policy Recommendations

The transition to EVs requires consumers to have confidence that they will have access to vehicles and charging options that are affordable and meet their needs. There is evidence that in relation to the availability and affordability of EVs, the market will be able to meet these needs. Guided by initiatives such as the ZEV mandate, prices are falling in both new car and second hand markets, and choice is improving.

The market is also delivering significant improvements in charging options, including home charging and the public charging infrastructure. However the UK and devolved governments need to ensure that consumers are aware of the options available for home charging, and the growth of public charging and the experience of using charge points meets consumers’ needs. This is particularly important in addressing the significant anxiety that consumers have about the range of EVs and their ability to recharge when they need to.

In order to support the transition to EVs the government needs to give confidence to businesses and consumers through consistent policy and interventions to support the roll out where there are gaps in market provision. Which? believes the government should:

• Provide clear and consistent support for the transition to EVs through initiatives such as the ZEV mandate: Policy uncertainty can undermine consumer confidence and the confidence of businesses that are responsible for delivering the cars and charging infrastructure that consumers need.
• Improve the consumer experience of public charging: Implement a robust monitoring framework to ensure compliance with the Public Charge Point Regulations, including the publication of performance data and enforcement in the case of non-compliance.
• Ensure accessibility of public charge points: Monitor adoption of the voluntary accessibility standard (PAS 1899) and consider mandatory requirements if progress is not sufficient.
• Expand charging infrastructure: Continue to support the availability of charge points through the LEVI and Rapid Chargepoint funds in areas where there is not a strong market case for investment. Establish powers to require the provision of charge points in car parks and service areas and ensure consumers have a choice of charge points and charge point providers in different settings. 
• Promote home charging affordability through Time of Use (ToU) tariffs: Enhance consumer awareness of ToU tariffs’ benefits to encourage charging during off-peak hours, supporting cost savings for consumers and grid stability.

Footnotes

 [1] In June 2023 (2,067), June 2022 (2,070) and June 2021 (2,084). ↑

[2] In 2019, cars and taxis contributed 69% towards these emissions. In 2021, the figure was 57%, although this is likely artificially low due to the impact of lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic.The current figure is likely closer to 69%. ↑

[3] Note: This estimated charging time is derived from in-house data collected by Which? through our car lab tests, providing an average recharge duration observed across a range of popular electric vehicle models under standard conditions. ↑